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Overview of the U.S. Economy > What is a Market Economy?
What is a Market Economy?
By Michael Watts
Introduction
Command and Market Economies
Consumers in a Market
Economy
Business in a Market Economy
Workers in a Market Economy
A System of Markets
Finances in a Market Economy
Government in a Market
Economy
WORKERS IN A MARKET ECONOMY
The stream of workers going to their jobs
on any work day can look very much alike in
both market and command economies that have
attained similar levels of industrialization.
But once again, there are hidden differences
in how the two systems function that are far
more important than the apparent likenesses.
Choices
Let's take the example of the family who earlier
went to the supermarket and bought oranges
-- along with some apples since the price
of oranges was a bit higher than they expected.
After having dinner and putting their children
to bed, Robert, who is, as we noted, a machinist,
and Maria, a schoolteacher, discuss the options
that are open to them in their careers. This
is by no means a regular occurrence; but
at key points in their lifetimes, workers
in a market economy must make important decisions
about their careers. Why? Because no one
else will make such decisions for them, since
there is no central planning organization
that determines who will work where for what
amount of money.
Robert is concerned that his opportunities
for advancement as a machinist are limited,
and he is considering a course of study in
computer programming that may offer wider opportunities.
For Maria, there is opportunity for advancement
to a more demanding administrative position
in the school system.
Thousands of workers face these kinds of economic
decisions every year. How Robert and Maria
decide these questions will depend on a number
of factors, both personal and economic. As
a middle-class couple with children, for example,
their decisions will be different than for
a single person who has just finished secondary
school or college, or for someone who is nearing
retirement age.
For Maria, the question is whether she wants
to trade the satisfactions of classroom teaching
for the higher pay but higher pressure and
longer hours of a more senior administrative
position.
Robert faces the critical question of whether
or not to attend college or some other kind
of training program with the hope that his
new skills will command a higher salary and
wider opportunity for advancement. For Robert,
whether this is a good investment from an economic
point-of-view depends on a number of factors:
- How much does Robert earn now, without
the additional education and training? The
higher his current wages, the more income
he will have to give up by leaving his machinist
job to complete college or another training
program.
- How high would his tuition and other costs
be to attend a college-level or another kind
of computer training course? The higher those
costs, the lower the gain will be on this
kind of personal investment, and the smaller
the number of people, like Robert, who will
enroll in these programs.
- How long is the coursework or training
relative to the potential job rewards? Robert
may find that a relatively easy six-month
training course has greater payoffs than
a rigorous graduate-level program at a university.
- Robert's age is also a factor. Younger
workers obviously have more years to earn
back the money they gave up by leaving their
jobs, as well as the other costs of schooling.
- How much will Robert earn after computer
training? The larger the difference between
this amount and his current earnings, the
more likely that he will seriously consider
enrolling in such a training program.
- How likely is Robert to find a job in this
area of work after graduation?
These factors vary considerably for different
people, which is why not everyone should go to
college or take other training programs, at least
in terms of making a sound financial investment
in their own careers. For some people the costs
are simply too high compared to the expected
benefits. For others -- including many bright
young students who don't hold jobs paying high
wages now -- college or other training programs
are almost always good "business" investments.
As in the case of Robert and Maria, these
decisions rest upon much more than just financial
considerations. But just like firms considering
investments in new plants and equipment, workers
in market economies bear clear costs and risks
in acquiring additional education and training.
And frankly, some of those investments don't
pay off, because not all people who go to college
succeed there or in the labor market after
they graduate. For many, lower-paying but secure
employment may be very attractive, offering
valuable time and opportunities to devote themselves
to family or to other personal and professional
pursuits. Still, for most workers in market
economies, the risks of education and training
have been well worth taking over the past few
decades, and increasingly so in recent years
as economies become more technological and
complex.
Workers and Employers
The example of Robert and Maria, and the millions
of workers like them, points to another fact
about market economies. Without a central
planning organization, workers and their
employers determine their relationship through
a series of independent decisions. This doesn't
mean that they always negotiate as equals,
or that workers are always happy with their
jobs and rates of pay. But it does mean that
employees and employers have a great deal
of freedom in deciding to begin, change,
or end their relationship. And that raises
a basic question: what keeps a worker and
firm together in a market economy, or leads
them to change their relationship?
As the case of Robert and Maria illustrates,
the kind of job a worker has in a market economy
depends first and foremost on his or her individual
interests, training, and skills. People are
free to pursue any career they choose, but
only those who are able to meet basic performance
standards in the jobs they choose will remain
on an employer's payroll. In competitive markets,
firms simply can't afford to keep paying workers
who can't, or won't, do the jobs they were
hired to do. But by the same standard, workers
who make solid contributions to a firm's production
of goods and services are very valuable employees
whom many different firms would like to employ.
To keep the services of those current workers,
firms have to offer competitive wages and terms
of employment compared to other firms. That
competition among workers looking for good
jobs, and firms looking for good workers, is
a constant activity in most labor markets.
The wage rates that firms will pay to workers
are mainly determined by the productivity of
workers, and by the relative scarcity or abundance
of workers with those skills. In general terms,
workers who can make or do things that many
consumers like, and that only a small number
of people are able to do, will command the
highest wages.
Other factors influence that relative scarcity,
however. For example, unpleasant or dangerous
working conditions can mean wage and salary
premiums for those workers, because many people
aren't willing to do those jobs. Coal miners
generally make more than file clerks; steelworkers
who build skyscrapers earn more than general
laborers who dig foundations for such buildings.
Education and Training
Jobs
that require more training and education also
tend to command higher salaries, other things
being equal, because, as Robert knows, these
workers give up years of working to acquire
the skills necessary for access to the higher-paying
jobs -- and because the education itself requires
intelligence and hard work to complete. Engineers
and architects are, on average, highly paid
in most market economies -- in large part for
these reasons.
Training, education, and level of effort may
all influence income, but one very important
factor is society's demand for a particular
skill or line of work. Skilled plumbers or
electricians often command higher fees than
carpenters or auto mechanics; but a carpenter
who is a skilled cabinetmaker or a master mechanic
may be in extremely high demand and command
high wages that reflect the value of his or
her skills.
The supply side of the equation works in a
similar fashion in labor markets. At most universities
in market economies, for example, philosophy
and language professors have received lower
salaries than engineering and science professors
for several decades now, simply because there
are so many more of them compared to the demand
for their services. A large number of people
can qualify to work as retail clerks in stores,
which is one reason that wage rates of such
jobs tend to be low relative to jobs where
the number of qualified persons are fewer.
Prices and Wages
The education and training issue also shows
that the decisions workers make in labor
markets are, once again, strongly influenced
by various prices, and especially by wage
rates. These prices for labor are in turn
influenced by the demand for the products
and services for which workers are hired.
As a result, wages in different occupations
rise and fall over time in large part because
of changes in the prices for those consumer
goods and services. For example, as automobiles
replaced horses in the first part of the
20th century, the wages of blacksmiths and
saddlemakers fell sharply, while the wages
for auto mechanics rose.
Similarly, in just the past few years, the
demand for workers with college degrees has
increased sharply in most market economies,
largely because most businesses now work with
more sophisticated technologies than they have
in the past. Robert is attracted to computers,
in part, because he sees it as a growing field
with relatively high demand and, consequently,
high wages.
International trade can also be an important
factor in determining overall demand. Industries
and companies that can compete successfully
and export to foreign markets open more jobs
and career opportunities for workers -- just
as imports from these countries offer them,
as consumers, a wider choice of goods at competitive
prices.
Workers who prepare for careers that experience
strong growth in demand will gain from their
foresight. Those who try to cling to jobs in
declining markets using traditional skills
will often be disappointed, and may even find
themselves unemployed. They will need training,
whether provided through their own resources,
by government, or by their employer. But that,
too, is part of the strong system of incentives
that directs more resources -- labor resources
in particular -- into the production of goods
and services that consumers want most, and
away from those no longer in demand.
This constant emphasis on producing what consumers
want is, over time, the most fundamental reason
why labor and other resources are so productive
in market economies. The lesson is clear: to
prosper, produce what people want and need.