=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= Chapter 1 - Introduction In 1782, just after the Revolutionary War (1775 - 1781), certain officers who felt that they had received inadequate pay for wartime services in the victorious Continental Army contemplated a military revolt against the civilian government. These malcontents, hoping to secure the support of their commander, gathered in Newburgh, New York, to hear the views of General George Washington. Before he offered his prepared remarks, Washington donned a pair of eyeglasses and said: "Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray, but almost blind, in the service of my country." Then he flatly refused to support a military mutiny, calling instead for disbandment of the army and continuing loyalty to the civilian government. Washington's firm stance forestalled the mutiny. Ever since, U.S. military leadership has accepted civilian control. Military coups and arbitrary military control of government are entirely absent from the experience of the United States. Even during periods of warfare, the nation has conducted regularly scheduled political events, including presidential elections during the years of the Civil War, World War II, and the Korean and Vietnam conflicts. This enviable record results from the unshakable conviction of the American people that civilian control of the armed services is an essential aspect of government of, by and for the people. In a democracy, public policy is decided by the majority, subject to the rule of law instead of brute force. Civilian control of the military helps to ensure that decisions concerning defense policy do not compromise fundamental democratic values, such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom of religion. However, as George Washington recognized, democratic nations such as the United States must maintain armed forces. From time to time, external threats develop, and on occasion, internal conflicts also occur, such as the American Civil War, to which the government must respond by enlarging the military. These circumstances generated some tensions between military and civilian leaders, but the latter always prevailed. Certain criteria govern civil-military relations in democratic states. These influence the governmental structure of the United States. A part of the American way of life from the beginning of the nation, they are completely unchallenged. Louis Smith, a leading student of civil-military relations, has summarized them effectively. They include: * Civilian leadership of the executive branch of government. The national leadership is accountable to a popular majority through frequent and regular elections. Also, the chief executive may be removed by the exercise of well-established constitutional processes. For example, the Congress of the United States may discharge presidents from office, if they commit "high crimes and misdemeanors." * Civilian leadership of the professional military services and departments. The professional military heads of the army, the navy and the air force are subordinate to civilian departmental heads. The chief executive appoints them, and the national legislature confirms them. In other words, the civilian executive stands at the head of the military chain of command, supported by civilian subordinates who oversee the day-to-day activities of the armed forces. The president of the United States, for example, appoints the civilian secretary of defense, who presides over the Department of Defense, which incorporates the four military services. * Statutory provisions to establish fundamental national security policies. Elected legislative representatives of the people enact laws that define the defense organization and policies of the nation. The chief executive enforces these directives. In the United States, the Constitution provides basic guidelines, and the Congress passes legislation that defines the scope of military activity. * Judicial defense of civilian control. The judiciary prevents the military from compromising civil liberties, including those of the members of the armed services. In the United States, the Supreme Court is empowered to hear cases that involve military infringements on the rights of the citizenry. How did the American people come to establish civilian control of the military? How did they manage to preserve such control despite significant challenges to national security at various points over the last two centuries? An examination of the history of the United States provides answers to these questions. Long before the United States gained its independence, the immigrants who settled the colonies became convinced practitioners of civilian control. As a consequence, this idea exerted great influence during the early days of the American republic, when the Constitution was written and a central government was organized according to its prescriptions. During the first century of the republic, civilian control became deeply imbedded in the national tradition, surviving the challenges that occurred during the Civil War of 1861 - 1865. And it remained firmly in place throughout the 20th century, despite two world wars and the long period of international tension known as the Cold War. The tradition of civilian control is now more thoroughly entrenched in the United States than ever before. However, the predominance of civilian values and institutions in the United States has not prevented the mobilization of highly efficient armed forces when they have been needed to defend the nation from its enemies.